Shrimp Meat

Vitamin and Mineral Basics: The ABCs of Healthy Foods and Beverages, Including Phytonutrients and Functional Foods

Jacqueline B. Marcus MS, RD, LD, CNS, FADA , in Culinary Nutrition, 2013

Iron

Iron is a trace mineral that is required in minute amounts in the human body, yet it has major functions. Iron is a component of both hemoglobin and myoglobin. Hemoglobin is a protein that is found in red blood cells and is what gives blood its red color. It transports oxygen to the tissues for energy metabolism and carbon dioxide away from the tissues for excretion. Myoglobin is a protein that is found in muscle cells. It controls oxygen uptake from the red blood cells. If iron is lacking in the diet, iron-deficiency anemia may result, which may lead to decreased concentration and energy and increased susceptibility to infection.

Iron-deficiency anemia is common around the world, particularly in iron-poor, grain-dependent countries. It is characterized by small, pale red blood cells and low hemoglobin. Conditions that create serious blood loss, such as extreme menstrual blood losses, serious intestinal diseases, or severe physical injuries, may increase the prevalence of anemia.

Pregnancy increases the need for iron, since a woman's blood supply expands to meet both her iron needs and those of the growing fetus. Iron-deficiency anemia during pregnancy can lead to premature birth, a low-birth-weight infant, and even death of the mother and fetus. Iron-deficient infants may not develop normally, and they may have serious mental and motor function disabilities. Furthermore, a heavily dairy milk–based diet during infancy may worsen iron deficiency, since dairy products are such a poor source of iron. Vegetarian children may be at particular risk.

Iron is lost daily in the feces, intestinal tract, skin, urine, and during menstruation. That is why it is important to regularly consume iron-rich foods in the diet. There are two types of iron that are found in foods: heme iron , which is found in fish, meats and poultry, and nonheme iron , which is found in plant foods. More heme iron is absorbed from the intestinal tract than nonheme iron, which is why vegetarians may have a harder time obtaining enough iron from their diet. Iron-fortified cereals, dried fruits, lentils, soybeans and spinach contain appreciable amounts of iron.

Some plant foods with nonheme iron, such as spinach or kale, contain oxalates that bind iron and make it less available to the human body. Only about 5 to 15 percent of dietary iron is normally absorbed in the intestinal tract, so oxalates may decrease iron absorption even more. Other binders that may interfere with iron absorption include phytates that are found in whole grains, and tannins that are found in chocolate, coffee, red wine and tea. A vegetarian diet that is rich in these foods may be compromised in iron.

Vitamin C–containing foods, such as citrus fruits or juice or tomatoes, will enhance the absorption of foods with nonheme iron. For example, if orange juice is consumed with iron-fortified cereal iron, then iron absorption should improve. Another technique for improving iron absorption is cooking nonheme iron foods in cast-iron cookware. For example, if minestrone soup with legumes and greens is cooked in a cast-iron pot, then some of the iron fillings may leach into the soup. This is called contaminated iron , which may be desirable, unless the body absorbs too much iron, as in iron overload.

Iron overload, or hemochromatosis, is a condition that can cause tissue damage and infections. Men are particularly prone to iron overload, which is one of the reasons why their RDA for iron is lower than a woman's daily iron requirement. Vitamin and mineral supplements with iron and iron supplements should be taken with caution; liver toxicity is of particular concern.

The best heme sources of iron include clams, fish, liver, meats, oysters and shrimp. The best nonheme sources of iron include dark green leafy vegetables such as collards, kale and spinach; dried fruits; enriched and fortified breads and cereals and whole-grain breads and cereals; legumes; and potatoes.

Sources of iron: dark green leafy vegetables, dried fruits, eggs, fish, enriched and fortified cereals, legumes, poultry, red meat and shellfish

Roles in body: energy generation and use, hemoglobin and myoglobin formation, immunity

Deficiency: anemia (small, pale red blood cells and low hemoglobin), concentration problems, headache, intolerance to cold, paleness, reduced immunity, weakness

Toxicity: acidosis, infections, injury to the liver, shock, death

Iron in Cooking

The milling of grain, which removes the bran and germ, eliminates about three-quarters of the naturally occurring iron in whole grains. Refined grains are often enriched and fortified with iron, such as breadstuffs, iron-fortified cold and hot breakfast cereals, pasta and rice. Cooking with cast-iron cookware adds iron to food. Care should be taken so that the food does not take on a metallic taste. This can be accomplished by "seasoning" cast-iron cookware before use by washing with mild soap and water, coating with oil, heating about 30 minutes, and wiping dry.

Cooking iron-rich foods with foods that are high in vitamin C increases its bioavailability, such as legumes with tomatoes in soup or clams with tomatoes in Manhattan clam chowder.

The RDA for iron is 18 milligrams (mg) daily for women aged 19 to 50 years, and 8 milligrams of iron daily for women aged 51 years and older. Pregnant women of all ages require 27 milligrams of iron daily. Lactating women aged 14 to 18 years require 10 milligrams of iron daily; those over 18 years of age require 9 milligrams of iron daily. Men aged 19 years and older require 8 milligrams of iron daily [47–49].

Sources of Iron Amount (milligrams)
3 ounces steamed clams 23.80   mg
¼ cup enriched breakfast cereal 1.80–21.1
1 tablespoon blackstrap molasses 3.50
½ cup cooked spinach 3.20
3 ounces chuck roast 3.13
¼ cup prune juice 2.25

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Freezing

P.J. Fellows , in Food Processing Technology (Fourth Edition), 2017

The main groups of commercially frozen foods are:

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Baked goods (e.g. bread, cakes, fruit and meat pies)

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Fish fillets and seafoods (e.g. cod, plaice, shrimps and crab meat) including fish fingers, fish cakes or prepared dishes with an accompanying sauce

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Fruits (e.g. strawberries, raspberries, blackcurrants) either whole or puréed, or as juice concentrates)

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Meats as carcasses, boxed joints or cubes, and meat products (e.g. sausages, beefburgers, reformed steaks)

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Prepared foods (e.g. pizzas, desserts, ice cream, ready meals and cook–freeze dishes)

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Vegetables (e.g. peas, green beans, sweetcorn, spinach, sprouts, potatoes).

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Freezing

P.J. Fellows , in Food Processing Technology (Third Edition), 2009

The major groups of commercially frozen foods are:

•

baked goods (e.g. bread, cakes, fruit and meat pies);

•

fish fillets and seafoods (e.g. cod, plaice, shrimps and crab meat) including fish fingers, fish cakes or prepared dishes with an accompanying sauce;

•

fruits (e.g. strawberries, oranges, raspberries, blackcurrants) either whole or puréed, or as juice concentrates);

•

meats as carcasses, boxed joints or cubes, and meat products (e.g. sausages, beefburgers, reformed steaks);

•

prepared foods (e.g. pizzas, desserts, ice cream, ready meals and cook-freeze dishes);

•

vegetables (e.g. peas, green beans, sweetcorn, spinach, sprouts, potatoes).

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Marine Enzymes Biotechnology: Production and Industrial Applications, Part I - Production of Enzymes

V. Venugopal , in Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, 2016

3.6 Uses of Cold-Adapted Enzymes

Cold-active proteases facilitate seafood processing at low temperatures such as caviar production (by cold-active fish pepsins or crab hepatopancreas), meat tenderization, and extraction of carotenoprotein (Gildberg, 1993; Haard & Simpson, 2006 ). Flavor can be improved by spraying cold-adapted proteases onto the surfaces of marine fish and shrimp meat followed by chilled storage improved taste ( Alishahi & Aider, 2011). Cold-active lipases facilitate development of various flavors owing to their activities at low temperatures (Birschbach, Fish, Henderson, & Willrett, 2004). TGase from polar fishes can be used for texture modification at low temperatures (Bougatef et al., 2010; Sriket, 2014), while antifreeze proteins from these fishes can inhibit crystal formation during frozen storage of muscle foods (Haard & Simpson, 2006; Venugopal, 2009).

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Preventing the Epidemic of Non-Communicable Diseases

A.A. Robson , in Bioactive Food as Dietary Interventions for Liver and Gastrointestinal Disease, 2013

5 Energy Density and Nutrient Density

Human food production should be linked to human nutritional requirements as its first priority (Robson, 2012). Thus, the high-energy-density and low-nutrient-density that characterize the modern diet must be overcome simultaneously (Robson, 2011, 2012). People can develop paradoxical nutritional deficiency from eating high-energy-dense foods with a poor nutrient content (Robson, 2009). The finding that people with a low-energy-dense diet (<1.6   kcal   g−1) have the lowest total intakes of energy, even though they consume the greatest amount of food, has important implications for promoting compliance with a healthy diet (Ledikwe et al., 2006). A farmed and/or processed food that is not both low-energy-dense and of high-nutrient-density (Figure 25.3, Table 25.1) is of poor dietary quality compared to the low-energy-dense foods of high-nutrient-density that humans should eat: the most nutritious cooked wild plant and animal foods for humans (Eaton et al., 2010; Robson, 2006, 2010a, 2011).

Figure 25.3. Relationship between energy density and water content based on all* food items present in the Australian Food, Supplement and Nutrient Database (AUSNUT, 2007) (energy density = −4.942 × water content + 4.889, F 1,3843 = 16566.17, P &lt; 0.001, R 2 = 0.81). The best-fit regression line (solid line) and 95% prediction intervals (broken lines) are included. *All foods and beverages listed in the database (available from http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/) were included for analysis unless the item was listed in a state that was not normally consumed (e.g., powdered foods that need reconstitution). In total, 3536 individual foods (including raw and cooked foods) and 309 beverages were included in the analysis.

Table 25.1. Energy Density and Nutrient Density of a Selection of Foods (Value per gram)

Energy (kcal) DHA   +   EPA (μg) Fe a (μg) Zn (μg) Mg (μg) Ca (μg) Vitamin (μg)
B12 B6 C
Oil, soybean b (04044) 8.8 0 1 &lt;1 0 0 0 0 0
Nut, Brazil nut (12078) 6.6 0 24 41 3760 1600 0 1.0 7
Chocolate, dark (19904) 6.0 0 119 33 2280 730 0.003 0.4 0
Twix® bar, Masterfoods (42183) 5.5 0 13 9 460 1300 0.003 0.4 10
Oat breakfast bar (43100) 4.6 0 32 16 1010 600 0 3.5 10
Cheese, cheddar (01009) 4.0 0 7 31 280 7210 0.008 0.7 0
Mayonnaise, regular (04018) 3.9 0 2 2 20 140 0.002 0.2 0
Special K®, Kellogg's (08067) c 3.8 0 270 29 620 300 0.195 64 677
Mayonnaise, light (04641) 3.2 0 3.2 2 20 80 0 0 0
Bread, white (18069) c 2.7 0 37 7 230 1510 0 0.8 0
Beef sirloin, roasted (13953) 2.1 0 17 47 220 190 0.015 5.5 0
Chicken meat, roasted (05013) d 1.9 500 12 21 250 150 0.003 4.7 0
Beef brain, cooked (13320) e 1.5 8550 23 11 120 90 0.101 1.4 105
Clam meat, cooked (15159) e 1.5 2840 280 27 180 920 0.989 1.1 221
Egg, poached (01131) f 1.4 410 18 11 120 530 0.013 1.2 0
Oyster meat, eastern, wild, cooked (15169) e 1.4 11200 120 1816 950 900 0.35 1.2 60
Moose meat, wild, roasted (17173) 1.3 0 42 37 240 60 0.063 3.7 50
Water buffalo meat, wild, roasted (17161) 1.3 0 21 25 330 150 0.018 4.6 0
Shrimp meat, cooked (15151) e 1.0 3150 31 16 340 390 0.015 1.3 22
Banana, raw (09040) 0.9 0 3 2 270 50 0 3.7 87
Mayonnaise, extra light (42193) 0.8 0 1 1 20 60 0 0 0
Spinach, boiled (11458) 0.2 0 36 8 870 1360 0 2.4 98
Celery, boiled (11144) 0.2 0 4 1 120 420 0 0.9 61

Entries retrieved from the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 22 (2009) and are identified by a 5-digit nutrient database number in parentheses.

a
Two billion people, over 30% of the world's population are anemic, many because of iron deficiency (World Health Organization, 2009).
b
Soybean oil provides 20% of all calories in the median US diet (Gerrior and Bente, 2002).
c
Fortified with nutrients.
d
Intensively reared chicken: if one takes DHA as the limiting nutrient for the assessment of quality, then to obtain the same amount of DHA today as can be obtained from one wild chicken, one would need to eat six intensively reared chickens – ingesting somewhere in the region of 9000   kcal (Wang et al., 2010).
e
Food with a high natural nutrient content and a low-energy-density.
f
Vitamin B12 in eggs is poorly absorbed relative to other foods containing B12 (Watanabe, 2007).

Processed low fat foods can have a deleteriously high-energy-density (cf. Robson, 2013a). The focus on just reducing dietary fat (Farhang 2007; Hsieh and Ofori 2007), must be refocused on reducing the positive imbalance between the intake and the expenditure of food energy. Low-fat, high-carbohydrate cereal-based products are often of high-energy-density. For example, a Masterfoods Twix® chocolate biscuit bar: 56% carbohydrate and 2.2% water   =   5.5   kcal   g−1, Kellogg's Special K®: 71% carbohydrate and 3% water   =   3.8   kcal   g−1, white bread: 51% carbohydrate and 36% water   =   2.7   kcal   g−1, while roasted wild water buffalo meat: 0% carbohydrate and 69% water   =   1.3   kcal   g−1 , shrimp meat cooked in moist heat: 0% carbohydrate and 77% water  =   1.0   kcal   g−1 and boiled celery: 4% carbohydrate and 94% water   =   0.2   kcal   g−1 (cf. Figure 25.3 and Table 25.1).

Processed food products of plant origin such as chocolate bars, biscuits, fruit bars, and cereal bars have a high-energy-density principally because they have low water content (Robson, 2011, 2012, 2013a). Self-assembled, water-filled, edible nanotubes that self-organize into a more complex structure, possibly a 3D network of nanocellulose, could be incorporated into many processed foods to lower their energy density to <1.6   kcal g−1 (Robson, 2012; cf. Norton et al., 2009). Nanocellulose is composed of nanosized cellulose fibrils (fiber diameter: 20–100 nm), has a water content of up to 99% and the same molecular formula as plant cellulose (Klemm et al., 2006). The water inside the nanosized cellulose fibrils could contain flavor with few calories, for example, a cup of tea without milk = 0.01   kcal g−1. The shape and supramolecular structure of the nanocellulose can be regulated directly during biosynthesis to produce fleeces, films/patches, spheres, and tubes (Klemm et al., 2011). Other edible materials can strongly adhere to the surface and the inside of nanocellulose structures such as fleeces to form edible composites (Chang et al., 2012). Taste sensation per mouthful could be improved by adding flavoring substances processed on the nanoscale (increased surface area in contact with taste and smell receptors) to edible composites (Ultrafine food technology: Eminate Limited, Nottingham, United Kingdom). Durethan® KU2-2601 packaging film produced by Bayer Polymers, Germany, is a nanocomposite film enriched with silicate nanoparticles which is designed to prevent the contents from drying out and prevent the contents coming into contact with oxygen and other gases. Durethan® KU 2-2601 can prevent food spoilage (Neethirajan and Jayas, 2011) and thus the water content of dehydrated plant-based food products can be increased without reducing product shelf life. Therefore, nanocellulose is expected to be widely used as a nature-based food additive (Chang, et al., 2012; Klemm, et al., 2011).

The bioavailable nutrient content including cofactors of processed foods should be based on the nutritional value of the most nutritious cooked wild foods for humans (Figure 25.4) and can be increased using existing bioactive encapsulation (Robson, 2010a, 2011). Aquatic biotechnology can provide the food industry with sufficient amounts of all the nutrients needed for mass scale optimal human nutrition including protein, DHA, EPA, AA, vitamins, minerals, and fiber (Harun et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2012; Ortiz et al., 2006). Reducing particle size using nanotechnology can further improve the properties of bioactive compounds (e.g., DHA and EPA), such as delivery, solubility, prolonged residence time in the gastrointestinal tract, and efficient absorption through cells (Chen et al., 2006).

Figure 25.4. Oysters, Ostrea edulis, for sale at a French market. Oysters, especially cooked wild oysters, are both low-energy-dense and some of the most nutritious foods for humans on the planet. However, they lack the fiber found in plants (Anthony A. Robson ©).

A reduction in liquid calorie intake has been found to have a greater effect on weight loss than a reduction in solid calorie intake (Chen et al., 2009). Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) require little digestion. Glucose and fructose can be directly absorbed into the bloodstream without digestion. Reducing the energy density of processed foods, including SSBs, and simultaneously increasing the cost of their assimilation makes them more akin to foods consumed by late Palaeolithic humans. The energetic cost of the assimilation of processed foods can be increased by increasing their protein and fiber content (Table 25.2) (Eaton et al., 2010; Robson, 2010a, 2011). Protein has more than three times the thermic effect of either fat or carbohydrate (Crovetti et al., 1998), and protein has a greater satiety value than fat or carbohydrate (Crovetti et al., 1998; Stubbs, 1998). A high-protein diet (protein and carbohydrate intake both being approximately one-third of total energy intake; Eaton et al., 2010) is of vital importance as a weight-loss strategy for the overweight or obese and for weight maintenance (Robson, 2009; Veldhorst et al., 2008). Clinical trials have shown that calorie-restricted, high-protein diets are more effective than are calorie-restricted, high-carbohydrate diets in promoting (Baba et al., 1999; Layman, 2003; Skov et al., 1999) and maintaining (Westerterp-Plantenga et al., 2004) weight loss in overweight subjects, while producing less hunger and more satisfaction (Johnston et al., 2004). Furthermore, high-protein diets have been shown to improve metabolic control in patients with type 2 diabetes (Odea, 1984; Odea et al., 1989; Seino et al., 1983). Food-grade protein-based nanotubes (Graveland-Bikker and De Kruif, 2006) may be used to increase the protein content of processed foods that are currently high in fat or high in carbohydrate. Functional foods and drinks are required to simultaneously satisfy the human 'sweet tooth' and almost completely remove added sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose from the diet (Eaton et al., 2010). Savory foods and drinks can be sweetened by adding fruit to them or adding calorie-free PUREFRUIT™ (Tate & Lyle) monk fruit (Siraitia grosvenorii) extract (Robson, 2012, 2013a, 2013b). PUREFRUIT™ is approximately 200 times sweeter than sugar and has exceptional stability.

Table 25.2. Sugar, Protein, and Fiber Content of a Selection of Sweet Foods and Drinks (Value per 100   g)

Sugar (g) Protein (g) Fiber (g)
Granulated sugar (19335) 99.8 0.0 0.0
Brown sugar (19334) 97.0 0.1 0.0
Honey (19296) 82.1 0.3 0.2
Vanilla fudge (19103) 79.8 1.1 0.0
Chewing gum (19163) 66.1 0.0 2.4 a
Toffee sweets (19383) 63.5 1.1 0.0
Boiled sweets (19107) 62.9 0.0 0.0
Maple syrup (19353) 59.5 0.0 0.0
Marshmallows (19116) 57.6 1.8 0.1
Jellies (19300) 51.2 0.2 1.0
Apricot preserve (19719) 43.4 0.7 0.3
Creme de menthe drink (14034) 41.6 0.0 0.0
Kellogg's Frosted Flakes® (08069) 38.7 4.3 1.8
High-fructose corn syrup (19351) 26.4 0.0 0.0
Pina colada drink (14017) 22.3 0.4 0.3
Chocolate milkshake (01110) 20.9 3.1 0.3
Vanilla ice cream (19089) 20.7 3.5 0.0
Cola drink (14148) 10.6 0.0 0.0
Red Bull® drink (14154) 10.1 0.3 0.0

Entries retrieved from the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 22 (2009) and are identified by a 5-digit nutrient database number in parentheses.

a
The fiber in the chewing gum is not usually ingested.

Cooking has obvious beneficial effects by increasing food safety and improving diet quality (Carmody and Wrangham, 2009). However, cooking can reduce the water content of a high-energy-dense processed food and, thus, further increase its deleteriously high-energy-density, especially if it is cooked twice. For example, toasting whole-wheat bread increases its energy density from 2.5 to 3.1   kcal   g−1 as water content decreases by 14% (data calculated from USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference). Nanoscale science and technology are now enabling us to understand many natural and unnatural processes. Studying nanostructures at the cell and DNA level gives us insight into the working of these processes and how to manipulate, prevent, and/or enhance them for the benefit of mankind.

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